The early seventeenth century was characterised by change: civil wars, religious reforms, scientific revolutions, among others. Despite this, the literary canon remained predominantly male dominated, and whilst change was slowly taking place, male driven narratives and inter-masculine dynamics made up the bulk of literature. Thus, it is pivotal that we address the significance and portrayal of male relations in literature at that time, particularly as seen in Shakespeare’s ‘Othello’ and Milton’s many political works. Examining male relations would offer valuable insights into power, authority, and hierarchy, reflecting the social and cultural values of their time, providing deeper insights and new perspectives into the Renaissance period as a whole. More specifically, this essay will argue that male relations in ‘Othello’ and Milton’s works are defined by competition, power struggles and fragility, with patriarchy often leading to mistrust, manipulation, and self-destruction.
Addressing authority in ‘Othello’ is arguably straightforward. Over the course of the play, we witness Iago constantly trying to rewrite the narrative, shifting the dynamics in his favour. Deceit and manipulation are at the forefront of his intentions. However, ‘male relations’ in Milton’s writings seem more complex at a first, and perhaps less obvious. In fact, masculinity and authority are often intertwined, almost synonymous. In ‘Paradise Lost’ for instance, Miller highlights how ‘a gender specific differentiation of Adam and Eve’ arises from ‘Milton’s assertion that “true authority” resides “in men” (Miller 152-163). ‘Lycidas’ too, ‘celebrates the Miltonic speaker’s own masculine authority’ (Hodgson 1-26). Throughout his works, his major male characters feel free to ‘censure and cure woman as an allowable scapegoat, drawing to her the blame for an encompassing darkness of cosmic proportions’ (Davies 177). Historically, and contextually, authority and masculinity are intrinsically linked for Milton, with critics going as far as calling him ‘one of the great misogynists of literature’, although that’s a discussion for a different time (Davies 175). Thus, for the rest of the essay, I shall use those two terms interchangeably, since Milton’s reference to authority throughout his works would have been exclusively regraded through a masculine perspective.
First, we’ll address ‘Othello’, Shakespeare’s chef-d’oeuvre. A tragedy, riveting, underpinned by revenge, power, and love; a play which sees male relationships play a pivotal role in shaping both narrative and other characters. More specifically, male bonds are shaped by a struggle for authority. After all, the plot is based around Iago’s resent for Cassio, the promotion he missed out on, and how his revenge and jealousy lead to a complex power-play between himself and Othello. To understand how male relations are defined by a struggle for authority, we must focus on the structural narrative. At the beginning of the play, the framework was shaped by Othello, mostly through stories, the ‘battles, sieges, and fortunes’ (Shakespeare 1.3.29) he had passed and the ‘parts, titles and perfect soul’ he possesses (1.2.31). By controlling the pace, verbosity, and essentially the narrative, Othello was in a position of authority. However, by the middle of the play, the dynamic flips. Iago implants himself and his deceits within the core of Othello’s mind, and suddenly the pace and verbosity change too. ‘His method of telling, set against Othello’s, marks the play’s shifting narrative dynamics–from the extended, coherent, and expansive mode that purports to be true, to one in which facts must be pieced together in order to construct any narrative at all’ (Kelley 58). As Othello progressively gives into these lies, his authority wanes, and Iago’s grows. By the end, ‘Othello is forced to read his own life through Iago’s narrative’, and so is the reader, marking a conclusive shift in authority (Kelley 61). Ultimately, Othello and Iago’s relationship is superficial and phony. Their ends are undoubtedly a consequence of authority, and its misuse.
Milton too, focuses in on male relations in a multitude of his writings, however his take on authority seems most sincere and developed in ‘The Reason of Church Government’. At its core, this political piece critiques and condemns the tyrannical system of the church, arguing that their need for authority is the cause of oppression and corruption in society. In Book 1, Milton critiques Ecclesial authority, arguing that the church should not hold so much moral power over the people. He equates the church to a king as he states, ‘When the Law was made, there was no King… Therefore your typical chaine of King and Priest must unlink’ (The Reason of Church Government. Book 1. Chapter V). At its core, Milton sees the Church as men who illegitimately claim authority over other men – patriarchy gone wrong. However, it must be noted that his take on authority is dual, not condemning power itself, but its misuse. Either way, ecclesial authority comes under scrutiny. A similar message resonates throughout Book 2, with Milton asking, ‘Tell me ye Priests wherfore this gold, wherfore these roabs and surplices over the Gospel?’ (The Reason of Church Government. Book 2. Chapter 2). Once again, the main criticism lies in the immorality of the church’s authority. Their excessive flamboyancy and display of wealth is in conflict with scripture and simplicity. Ultimately, Milton’s critique of ecclesial authority reflects a broader concern with male power struggles, exposing how men in positions of religious leadership exploit authority for personal gain rather than moral duty. By framing the church’s dominance as “patriarchy gone wrong,” Milton presents a vision where male relations should be governed by reason and righteousness, rather than hierarchy and oppression.
However, authority itself is not the root problem, but rather the end of all means. It is the final product, the mouth of a wide river, feeding the conflict that defines male relations, of which at its source lies honour and fragility. Relationships are characterised by the fragile nature of masculinity and the values on which those notions are built upon. Othello’s authority is reliant on his reputation as a man, and his downfall is exacerbated, if not entirely fuelled by his fear of dishonour. In Act 3, Othello’s breakdown becomes evident, and as Iago continues manipulating events around him, Othello’s state of mind becomes unstable. By the end of the act, the fragility of his authority and the ease with which it can shatter manifests itself through a semi-monologue, half directed at Iago, half directed towards himself, “Farewell the tranquil mind! Farewell content! Farewell the plumed troops and the big wars That make ambition virtue! O, farewell! (3.3.349). As established earlier, Othello draws on his authority from past battles and victories, with ‘troops and big wars’ being symbolic for his manhood. Through the repetition of ‘farewell’, Othello abandons all sense of authority and accepts his new role as ‘a victim of cuckoldry’ (Thomas 116). His manhood is shortly after questioned by Iago himself as he asks, ‘Are you a man? Have you a soul? Or sense?’ (3.3.375). By falling for Iago’s provocations, Othello exposes the fragile nature of his masculinity. As critics remark, ‘In Othello’s case, seeking a stable form of masculinity in the face of marital infidelity turns him from military general to ‘repugnant barbarian’, epitomizing a precarious masculinity undermined by the fear of failing to live up to certain social expectations of manhood’ (Thomas. Chapter 5). It must be noted that Shakespearean notions of gender expectations were largely different to ours today, with ‘masculinity’ and ‘femininity’ being entirely ‘shaped by cultural expectation rather than innate identities’ (Thomas 118). Thomas proceeds to posit a Shakespearean emphasis on ‘cultural masculinity’, with expectations being in a constant state of ‘flux’. Thus, whilst Othello’s concerns and fears might be sympathised with for a modern audience, a 17th century one would ‘expect’ and ‘criticise’ him based on historic notions of masculinity and honour, to which Othello falls short of.
Similar nodes of honour and fragility run parallel in Milton’s ‘Areopagitica’, a text against censorship and for free speech. Written at a crucial time during the Civil War, Milton criticised the Royalists and their need to censure any poetry or literature they deemed to negatively depict the monarchy, focusing on the fragile nature of their authority. Milton criticises the weakness of censored manhood, stating he “cannot praise a fugitive and cloistered virtue, unexercised and unbreathed, that never sallies out and sees her adversary” (Areopagitica). Much like ‘Othello’, ‘Areopagitica’ critiques a manhood or virtue that is never tested. If authority (or masculinity) is based solely on reputation rather than resilience and challenge, it is fragile – it lacks true strength. The royalists fail in that they fear losing status and control, and much like Othello himself, they do not face the challenge head on, but rather try to find ways around the issue. Authority is gained through struggle and reason, and Milton critiques the royalist’s lack of either, instead pointing out the fragile nature of their masculinity and authority. Both texts place emphasis on honour and a sense of self as being built through external validation rather than true inner strength, highlighting the peril of authority rooted in insecurity.
So far, this essay has focused on what particularly defines male relations, and how themes of fragility and authority underpin the majority of male interactions. However, the consequences of distrust and betrayal are ultimately the reason why studying male relations is so important. With Desdemona’s death, and Milton’s warning on censorship and corruption, both authors expose how the fragility of masculine relations and a constant vie for authority will result in self-destruction. ‘Othello’ ends with the tragic murder of Desdemona and Emilia, and Othello’s own suicide – the extent of destruction is immense. As Othello murders Desdemona, his final lines to her are, “O perjured woman! Thou dost stone my heart, And mak’st me call what I intend to do A murder, which I thought a sacrifice” (5.2.64). Othello reveals his internal conflict and distorted sense of justice, seeing Desdemona’s murder not as a crime, but a necessity, reflecting both his delusion and tragic downfall. The tragedy further lies in Othello’s own realisation as he blurts out, “O fool! fool! fool!” (5.2.318). Othello grasps the gravity of his actions too late, and consumed by grief and regret, arguably takes the easy way out. His downfall is not just personal, but symbolic of the destruction wrought by jealousy and manipulation. The deaths of Desdemona and Emilia highlight the vulnerability of women in a world dominated by male honour and mistrust, while Othello’s suicide underscores his inability to reconcile his love with his actions.
Whilst Milton’s work is less tragic and more political, it too is underpinned by a feeling of distrust and the possible consequences of fragile authority. Milton’s ‘Areopagitica’ exposes censorship as a symptom of mistrust, warning that restricting intellectual freedom leads to stagnation and decay, much like how distrust led to destruction in Othello. Milton argues that true authority must be built on reason and virtue rather than fear and control and goes as far as to claim that those who misuse stately authority are, “no less than a tyrant, and is thereby corrupted with the very essence of tyranny” (Areopagitica). Ultimately, this points to the destructive consequences of male driven authority struggles in society. The fragile nature of interactions leads to the need to overcompensate, thus creating scenarios where the consequence is a corrupt state limiting the liberties of citizens.
To conclude this essay, both Shakespeare’s ‘Othello’ and Milton’s political writings illustrate how fragile masculinity and a contest for authority lead to destructive consequences. In ‘Othello’, Shakespeare portrays the destructive impact of jealousy, manipulation, and mistrust within male relationships, particularly through Othello’s tragic descent into madness, catalysed by Iago’s deceit. Othello’s internal turmoil and eventual suicide reflect a breakdown of authority and a fatal clash between reputation, honour, and insecurity. Through the deaths of Desdemona and Emilia, Shakespeare critiques the vulnerability of women in a patriarchal society, where male authority is built on fragile foundations and often results in irreversible harm. In contrast, Milton’s works, particularly ‘Areopagitica’ and ‘The Reason of Church Government’, critique the fragility of ecclesiastical and political authority. Milton condemns the abuse of power by those in authority, stressing that true authority should be grounded in reason, virtue, and freedom, not fear and control. Just as Othello’s downfall is rooted in his inability to reconcile love with authority, Milton warns of the dangers of censorship and the limiting of intellectual freedom, both of which arise from insecure, fragile power. Ultimately, both authors underscore the consequence of unrestricted authority, demonstrating that when authority is fragile and based on fear, manipulation, or self-interest, the consequences are destructive not only for the individual but for society at large.
Works Cited
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